Page 32 - MJHP MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION Volume 2, 2020

MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH PROMOTION Volume 2, 2020

EMGs (as of 1st May 2020). In UK the EMGs made up about 14% of total
population (Platt & Warwick, 2020). There are more deaths from COVID-19
among African American than in White American as study revealed in the
United States. For example, in Chicago, nearly 52% deaths from COVID-19
were among African American although they represent only about 30% of
the state’s population. In New York, death rate was more prominent between
African American and Hispanic than White American (Bhala et al., 2020).
Similarly, Raifman and Raifman (2020) emphasized that people who are
black, American Indian, or live-in low-income households are more likely to
have conditions associated with COVID-19 relative to those who are white
or are living in higher-income households. The higher observed incidence
and severity in EMGs may be associated with socioeconomic status (SES),
cultural, or lifestyle factors, genetic predisposition, or pathophysiological
differences in susceptibility or response to infection.
Ethnicity is a complex entity composed of genetic make-up, social
constructs, cultural identity, and behavioural pattern (Pareek et al., 2020).
EMGs around the world are historically among the most vulnerable
populations and often subject to exclusion, marginalization and poverty
(Utzinger et al., 2010). Evidence showed ethnicity could interplay with virus
spread through cultural, behavioural and societal differences including lower
SES, health-seeking behaviour and affecting cohabitation (Pareek et al.,
2020). According to the report by Public Health England (2020), in practice
after migration or by birth in the country, ethnic minority populations should
experience health-care outcomes equal to those of others. However, this is
doubtful. Typically, the most reported disparities are observed among African
American and Latino individuals, and where data exist, American Indian,
Alaska Native, and Pacific Islander populations. Preliminary prevalence and
mortality estimate in multiple geographic areas, which are being tracked daily,
demonstrated a consistent pattern of EMGs (World Health Organization,
2020). Long-standing systemic drivers of health inequities, such as unstable
and adverse working conditions, increasing economic inequalities, and anti-
democratic political structures and institutions, have been highlighted during
COVID-19 pandemic (Paramoer et al., 2021). This discrepancy highlighted
potential racial, economic, social and other inequalities among the identified
determinants (Khunti et al., 2020). Therefore, this review aims to identify
SDH that increase susceptibility being infected with COVID-19 among
EMGs and addressing those issues with effective health promotion (HP)
strategies.

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